cognition and intelligence

This apparatus simulates the foraging challenge presented to rats in their natural ecology. May I know who wrote this article? Apes go further in their use of Arabic numerals as symbols by using them to demonstrate counting. Learning Disabilities Journal, 13, 1014. Each author takes a different experimental approach to the subject, spanning research on neuroscience and perceptual speed to research on problem solving and metacognition. Somewhat Technical Expositions on Cognition and Intelligence, Reviewed in the United States on March 8, 2021. Cues from the room containing the maze are used to remember the locations of the arms that have been explored. As a part of this discussion, we will consider thinking and briefly explore the development and use of language. Part 4: Cognition and intelligence. Cognition and intelligence In 1871 Charles Darwin's inclusion of mind and behavior in his theory of evolution gave scientific legitimacy to the investigation of animal thinking. : The tests of monkey memory involve recognition memory while the typical procedure with humans involves recall memory. That is, with experience, they behave as though they understand that it is their own body that is reflected in the mirror. To test this interpretation, the chimpanzees were anesthetized and an odorless red mark was placed on one eyebrow and one ear, in a location where the chimpanzee could not see the mark without the use of the mirror. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. The one-to-one principle requires that each item is enumerated or "tagged" individually. Mental chronometry and the unification of differential psychology Arthur Jensen 3. A history of research on creativity. According to 2004 research (6) on the appropriate contexts for each type of intelligence, the researchers found that cognitive intelligence is a better predictor of performance on individual tasks, whereas emotional intelligence is a better predictor of performance on teamwork. The calls elicit different responses specific to each type of call, and production and response to each class of call show a developmental course. Most of the current research and theory in animal cognition focuses on the cognitive abilities of nonhuman primates. (Eds.). Cognition, 93, 4373. From the acquisition of language to the imaginative art of storytelling to the advent of data science and machine learning . Each also has its own advantages. Understanding the cognitive abilities of animals and how they use these capacities to solve daily problems of finding. This procedure works against the natural predisposition to choose the larger of two quantities, and the chimps had a great deal of difficulty with the task, even though it was clear from their behavior that they understood that they were not getting the quantity chosen. (1982). Learning Disability Quarterly, 17, 311322. It forms the basis for such complex social strategies as intentional deception. Baron claims there are five aspects to emotional intelligence intrapersonal capacities, adaptability, general mood, interpersonal capacities, and stress management. : The problem of universals in language. As the field of animal cognition has progressed, emphasis on scientific rigor and objectivity has characterized research. Cognition, 93, 4373. In fact, intelligence is a part of cognition. Even animals that spend much of their time in solitude must recognize social features of other conspecifics, including individuals who may be living in the same area. The distribution of this capacity and its interpretation are open questions subject to ongoing empirical investigation and theoretical debate. They may show aggressive behavior such as threats, or they may attempt to play and to reach around the mirror as though attempting to find the other animal. Key Points: Cognitive abilities can be trained and improved. Children learn lang through imitation, reinforcement and other forms of conditioning. Knowing that an incentive is located in a particular location without remembering the experience of seeing it hidden illustrates the distinction between semantic memory (knowledge) and episodic memory (memory for the event). This review wants to. Food-related behaviors such as foraging or storing food for later use require memory. Lenneberg, E. (1967). Cognition noun (countable) A result of a cognitive process. The science of multiple intelligences theory: A response to Lynn Waterhouse. Various definitions and theoretical perspectives abound, addressing such issues as whether intelligence is composed of one general factor or several factors and, if several, which ones. Only adult males can perform this latter method because of the strength required to force open the fruit. April 2022 0 0 Report. The finding that orangutans Azy and Indah were able to learn relatively rapidly to inhibit the choice of the larger quantity supports the suggestion that ecology plays a role in this behavior. The rat's task is to run down an arm, eat the food in that goal box, return to the center area, and choose another arm to enter, repeating this until all the food has been found. Differential ability scales. You're listening to a sample of the Audible audio edition. (1981). The above distinctions and methods are relevant to laboratory research with animals, and they are addressed specifically below. 1. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. To be human, the individual needs shared bodily practices and to inhabit the world of culture. For example, she saw videotape in which one of her human caretakers was apparently locked in a cage and could not escape despite attempts to open the locked door. Providing captive animals with cognitive enrichment by challenging their cognitive skills contributes to their psychological well-being. Terman, L. M. (1925). With time, the dog or cat will ignore the mirror image and no longer attempt to engage the reflection in social interaction. It involves the acquisition and retention of knowledge which is then organized and later applied where appropriate. Shaped by a complex interaction of hereditary and environmental factors. It may be a species difference, or it may be the case that with additional research the apparent discontinuity will be resolved. No one is born intelligent, one needs to work on it and improve his skills. Werker, J. F., & Lalonde, C. E. (1988). Scientists have looked to brain size as a way to predict intelligence across species, but absolute brain size does not work, as body sizes vary so much across animal species. Also see: Difference between intelligence and creativity, Image Courtesy: avonandsomerset.police.uk, newvaluestreams.com, Hi Roma, please just use Difference Between in place of Author. There are certain cognition therapies, which mainly focus on changing the individual's mental status of those who all are emotionally depressed. Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Memory involves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. We work hard to protect your security and privacy. Even in a species that is not typically group living, cultural differences are found across geographical areas. She was able to add quantities regardless of whether objects or numerals were presented. Orangutans observed in Sumatra use tools constructed from sticks to pry the seeds from Neesia fruits, a fruit with a very tough husk that also has spiny hairs protecting the seeds. Although the EQ (as well as other measures of brain complexity) is consistent with expectations of relative cognitive complexity, it indicates nothing about the types of cognitive abilities available to animals of different species. Perception. Please try again. Binet-Simon intelligence scale: This was the first IQ test ever made, and was developed in 1905 by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon. (1956). However, such studies continue. On the second occasion, a mother re-positioned a nut that her son had placed on an anvil in a position that would not have permitted its being opened. It is the process of how you think, is how you start to feel. 3436). In some cases it is difficult to study a psychological process directly in humans. Berkley: University of California Press. Termites attack the intruding stick, attaching themselves to it, and the chimpanzee withdraws a termite-laden stick and proceeds to eat the termites. Neuroscience letters,244(2), 73-76. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag, 2001. There is some evidence that dolphins are capable of mirror self-recognition, and gibbons also may have this capacity. A "leopard" alarm call sends group members to trees with branches that are too fragile to support the weight of a leopard. Why emotional intelligence is an invalid concept. Rocks used as hammers have a size and shape that fit the chimpanzee's hand, and rocks chosen as anvils have a flat surface. Goldstone, R. L., & Kersten, A. Importance of cultural factors: there are striking cultural variations in cognitive style. D.S. Cognitive intelligence has been shown to be a great predictor in decision making for leaders, especially in the context of understanding culture and intercultural efforts. Perceptual aspects of social knowing: Looking and listening in infancy. Cognitive Critique, 7, 2948. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. The encephalization quotient (EQ) was developed as a measure of relative brain size. Does language shape thought? information; knowledge; understanding Riccio, C. A., Gonzales, J. J., & Hynd, G. W. (1994). Although for some investigators of animal cognition the question of ape language is still at issue, the ape language projects have expanded in content and have provided important discoveries about ape cognitive abilities. As compared to the general population, one cannot measure a persons intelligence. Although dogs do not seem to respond appropriately to pointing (the usual response by the dog is to sniff the finger of the individual pointing), they do respond to gaze direction in humans and have been shown to use gaze as a cue for the location of hidden food. Establishment of adaptive hybrid computing, cognitive clouds and edge intelligence beyond today's investments on data infrastructure. 2004, Trade paperback. Shumaker is using the animals' symbolic abilities as a window into other related cognitive processes such as number comprehension. She also spontaneously added quantities to report the sum of objects hidden across three locations. The most widely known of these is the chimpanzee's use of twigs to "fish" for termites in termite mounds at the Gombe Stream Reserve (now Gombe National Park) in Tanzania, East Africa. Rats also discriminate number of rewards and can learn sequences of reward patterns. Over the course of many individual problems, the monkeys took fewer trials to reach a high level of performance. Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. (2004). However, they appear to have the cognitive ability to acquire aspects of language using symbols in communicative interactions with humans. Instead, "g" is the result of multiple domain-general executive attention processes and multiple domain-specific processes that are sampled in an overlapping manner across a battery of intelligence tests. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press. (2013). In order to deceive another by providing incorrect information, the actor must know something about the other's perspective and expectations and what information to provide (or withhold) as deception. Cognition & Intelligence is not exactly an easy book for a layman to read. When questions are posed, the orangutans indicate the appropriate symbol from an array of symbols by touching it. Clearly, these animals have had enriched early experiences, including direct teaching of skills by human caretakers, and are not representative of chimpanzees developing with their mothers in the wild environment. Learning set is still used to study aspects of learning and cognitive flexibility in humans and nonhumans. The present study examined relationships among prenatal characteristics of 121 adolescent mothers-including cognitive readiness for parenting, intelligence, social support, and personal adjustment-and intellectual-linguistic development, social-emotional functioning, and adaptive behavior in their children at three years of age. Flanagan, D., & Kaufman, A. This approach was guided by Aristotle's proposal that organisms can be arranged along a "ladder of life" with humans at the top and other animals at different rungs, or levels, down this ladder. Declarative memory is further subdivided into episodic and semantic memory. Visual social signals provide information in social interactions. Intelligence noun Information, usually secret, about the enemy or about hostile activities. Body-kinesthetic intelligence is balance and hand-eye coordination, motor skills, the ability to use your body, and proprioception well. Cognitive style or thinking style is a concept used in cognitive psychology to describe the way individuals think, perceive and remember information. Capacity for learning, reasoning, understanding, and similar forms of mental activity; aptitude in grasping truths, relationships, facts, meanings, etc. list created September 1st, 2014 by CrimsonFlamez (votes) . Social transmission through social learning is the most likely explanation for this phenomenon, through mother-offspring transmission and/or through social encounters among animals inhabiting the same area. Intelligence is, in reality, an aspect of cognition. In addition, cognitive psychologists do extensive research about cognitive functions to figure out how humans receive and make sense of their gathered information. Weiner (Eds. (n.d.). Roberts, D. (2014, May 27). Cognitive intelligence also influences how we make decisions in our personal life. According to POT, g does not reflect a general cognitive ability. Furnham, A. Although an enculturated ape has had a different early environment, he or she continues to be an ape and to show cognitive skills available to an ape. Journal of Educational Psychology, 54(1), 122. For animals like gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) or leaf monkeys (Presbytis spp. Theory & Psychology, 12(3), 283314. might not be so for an animal living in a different habitat. Imo began to use the nearby water to wash sand from the sweet potatoes. A study of infants sensitivity to visual prosody. The product of such a process; something thus known, perceived, etc. Oprah Winfrey timeline. Pfungst performed experiments in which Mr. von Osten (and the others) provided these behavioral cues at appropriate times (consistent with the correct answer) and at inappropriate times (consistent with a wrong answer). The outcomes were positive, showing that several aspects of EI improved during and up to one year after the study. They found that Hans was most accurate when his owner Mr. von Osten was present, but that he could also solve problems when Mr. von Osten was absent. Curtiss, S. (1981). Allen and Marino noted that there is much more research done on animals that are not commonly food . over a five-year period, by rhesus monkeys across seven years, and by a sea lion over a ten-year period. German, T. P., & Barrett, H. C. (2005). The task was simple but not straightforward. Crystal, D. (2004). A definition of intelligence applicable to nonhuman animals includes aspects of learning, memory, social cognition, conceptual ability, problem-solving ability, and cognitive flexibility. Psychology, public policy, and law, 11(2), 235294. Musical intelligence is the ability to appreciate music and discern between shifts such as rhythm change, pitch, and tone. Mutual synonyms. Why Cant I Stop Thinking About Someone? It is shaped by repeated thoughts, patterns, and behaviors. Additional observations of tool use include the use of leaves that have been chewed to serve as a sponge to obtain water from tree hollows, the use of tree branches in agonistic displays, various uses of sticks, leaves, or branches to obtain otherwise inaccessible food, and the use of leaves to remove foreign substances from the body. Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life. (2012). When provided with daily exposure to a mirror outside their enclosure, individual chimpanzees initially responded to the mirror image with social behaviors suggesting that the mirror image was perceived of as an unfamiliar chimpanzee. Universals of language, 2, 1-29. Using the mirror to guide their hands, these animals groomed their eyes, picked their teeth, inspected their genital areas, and also made faces while watching in the mirror. Theory of Mind is a form of social cognition, or the ability to process cognitive information presented by social partners. Although the symbol for apple was a blue triangle, Sarah described the object presented to her as "red" and "round," referring to attributes of the object rather than of the symbol. Memory in which people recall events in great detail is called answer choices Generic Memory Procedural Memory Iconic Memory Flashbulb Memory Question 2 Learn more Kindle $13.32 - $38.00 Hardcover $49.95 - $77.99 Paperback $20.62 - $41.98 . Encyclopedias almanacs transcripts and maps. Emotional intelligence, also known as emotional quotient (EQ), refers to ones ability to manage and use their emotions effectively. Hans' numerical ability was not based on an understanding of number, but rather on his reading of unintentionally provided subtle behavioral cues from his human questioner. The topics chosen for this review include those that are currently dynamic and are likely to show the most growth over the next several years. Fundamentals of psycholinguistics. Investigators interested in animal intelligence have turned from global measures of intelligence and have focused research on various cognitive capacities such as basic processes like learning and memory, complex concepts like number, cognitive flexibility shown by tool use and construction, social cognition, and symbolic processing. (2009). Swaab, T. Y., Ledoux, K., Camblin, C. C., & Boudewyn, M. A. An interesting complicated instance of tool use is the use of rocks as hammer and anvil to crack open nuts reported for chimpanzees in West Africa. Also see: Sensation Vs. Something went wrong. (1999). To what extent memory is used in foraging, and how that process is used, has been addressed in field studies of nonhuman primates. Hillyard, S. A., Vogel, E. K., & Luck, S. J. Roberts, W. A. For the 2022 holiday season, returnable items purchased between October 11 and December 25, 2022 can be returned until January 31, 2023. Kohler, W., & Winter, E. (1925). Steitz, T. (2010). They groomed and investigated parts of their bodies, such as the face, that were invisible to them without the use of the mirror. The problems involved making a choice between two objects that differed from each other in several physical dimensions such as color, shape, material, size, and position. 1 / 14. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Principles of Animal Cognition. Evolutionary continuity also underlies the investigation of animal cognition in attempts to develop animal models for human phenomena. These symbols, called lexigrams, were composed of abstract geometric shapes combined to form unique configurations, each of which referred to a particular word or concept. In 2008 the science journal Nature launched an informal . Therefore, in this article, we will understand the basic features of each, which will help us to differentiate the two. Cognitive style differs from cognitive ability (or level), the latter being measured by aptitude tests or so-called intelligence tests. The most efficient solution is for the rat to run down each arm only once. Some of the many different cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving. In such a project, Chantek, an orangutan reared by Lynn Miles beginning in 1977, learned ASL. Preface 1. A team member who is a cognitive asset may become a team liability as a result of insufficient EQ.. Psychological Science, 16, 15. Our vast intelligence also allows us to have language, a system of communication that uses symbols in a regular way to create meaning. The EQ is a calculation based on the size of a species' brain compared to the expected size based on body size. This concept, the scala naturae, is no longer accepted in comparative studies of animal behavior or intelligence. Naturalistic is the ability to see the workings of nature and classify and categorize elements of the natural world. Many instances of deception have been reported from observations of apes and monkeys in the field and in the laboratory, and the extent to which these deceptive incidents are based on the perspective-taking capacity implied in Theory of Mind is still an open question. ethology, animal behavior. Why you cant stop checking your phone. Retrieved from http://www.bostonglobe.com/ideas/2013/10/06/why-you-can-stop-checking-your-phone/rrBJzyBGDAr1YlEH5JQDcM/story.html. 1903-1989 Researchers Salovey and Mayer define EQ as the ability to perceive, understand, express, facilitate and manage emotions in oneself and others. Building on that definition, Daniel Goleman (4) added that this perception, or recognition, of our own and others emotional and psychological states helps us to cope with environmental demands and pressures., According to Dr. Reuven Baron, EI is an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence ones ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures.. Cognitive intelligence, also referred to as intelligence quotient (IQ), or more simply called cognition, involves acquiring knowledge and comprehension through the thinking mind, life experience, and the senses (somatic experience). A. The triarchic mind: A new theory of intelligence. The behavior of an animal toward its mirror image suggests much about the animal's understanding of the source of that image. Such understanding is also vital to promote the welfare of those individuals who are housed in captivity, regardless of their endangered status. Rumbaugh developed a language he called "Yerkish" named for the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center where the Lana project began. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/10/us/redress-weighed-for-forced-sterilizations-in-north-carolina.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0. 3. Many experimental studies with nonhuman primates have demonstrated memory phenomena similar to those shown by humans. Further, she will guide the human to the point where the item (that is outside of Panzee's enclosure and hence unavailable to her) is hidden. After finishing this chapter, you will have a greater appreciation of the higher-level cognitive processes that contribute to our distinctiveness as a species. Theories of cognitive processes have been discussed throughout the history of human evolution, and modern advancements in technology within mathematics and computer science that have allowed for testing and comparison within artificial intelligence have allowed for dramatic advancements in the understanding and documentation of why humans act the way they do, how they make decisions and how they plan for the future. Cattell, R. (1963). In The social animal (p. 151). Books You don't have any books yet. Well also take a brief look at a couple of theories of intelligence in the world of psychology to offer some insight into just how broad the term intelligence is. Cognitive intelligence is your ability to navigate reasoning and problem solving, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, and to learn quickly from experience. Attention helps us focus our mental energy on circumstances and situations. Sensory gain control (amplification) as a mechanism of selective attention: electrophysiological and neuroimaging evidence. Gardner suggests that rather than there being a general type of intelligence, which everyone has or lacks to varying degrees, there exist multiple types of intelligence. this memory involves more than simple knowledge that a particular object is hidden outside the enclosure. (Eds.). Cognition, Intelligence, and Achievement is motivated by the work of the renowned Professor J. P. Das on the PASS (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous and Successive Processing) theory of intelligence and CAS measures (Cognitive Assessment System) of cognitive processes. New theoretical approaches and innovative methodologies have led to significant advances in the past 20 years in understanding how animals think. However, the date of retrieval is often important. Hence the name of our lab. To consider human intelligence only in terms of cognitive intelligence (IQ) fails to address and credit the various other forms of intelligence with which we navigate our lives and the world around us. In a project begun in 1978 by Kiyoko Murofushi, Toshio Asano, and Tetsuro Matsuzawa, chimpanzee Ai continues to demonstrate her sophisticated cognitive abilities using a touch-sensitive video screen and a vocabulary of lexigrams and Arabic numerals. Infants learn the appropriate calls, sometimes making errors as they develop, for example, producing an eagle call to the sight of a harmless bird. He has won numerous awards from professional associations and holds four honorary doctorates. (2004). The assessment of intelligence has a long and colorful history, and its development mirrors the development of psychology as a field. Additional features include that any set of items can be counted, and that the order in which items are counted is arbitrary and irrelevant to determining the final count. Customer Reviews, including Product Star Ratings help customers to learn more about the product and decide whether it is the right product for them. Ciba Foundation Symposium, 178, 187206. Career Paths in Psychology: Where Your Degree Can Take You, The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology). Some of the explanations of types of intelligence are given below:-. Full-term and preterm infants perception of face-voice synchrony. Those anecdotal observations were criticized for their lack of objectivity, leading to the introduction of more objective techniques such as experimental studies and more careful interpretation of results. Further, Patterson translated a children's book about Koko into French to distribute in French-speaking Africa as a way to educate children about the cognitive and emotional capacities of gorillas and the importance of preserving them in the wild. The opportunity to observe an animal using complex cognitive abilities to solve a problem not only informs visitors of the capabilities of great apes, it also serves to illustrate the importance of preserving animals with such complex minds. 2019Encyclopedia.com | All rights reserved. New York: Falmer Press. Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada). Does the face say what the mouth says? The videotape was stopped before the problem was solved, and Sarah was provided with photographs, one of which had the solution to the problem (in this case, a key for the padlock on the cage door). The study of animal cognition has been added to the study of animal behavior, ecology, and evolution as we continue to investigate the biology of our world. When the objects presented were non-desirable objects such as pebbles, they still could not inhibit the larger choice. Beginning in 1973, Duane Rumbaugh trained a chimpanzee named Lana to produce sentences through the use of a computer-operated keyboard containing abstract symbols that represented verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. They live secret lives, surviving on stealth and intelligence. New York: Psychological Corporation. (1997). it would be a great help upon giving credit to you. ), Handbook of psychology (Volume IV, pp. When a question was posed, Hans used his right front foot to tap out the answer, and he was quite accurate. Team members with sufficient IQ but insufficient EQ may find themselves in a situation where they do not have the emotional competency necessary to take advantage of their cognitive processes. Early studies of intelligence in animals used learning tasks to attempt to characterize species differences in capacity. The focus here will be on those cognitive processes. Chapter 7: Cognition & Intelligence Overview, Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology Overview, Chapter 2: Psychological Research Overview, 2.3 Analyzing Findings and Experimental Design, Chapter 3: Biological Basis of Behavior Overview, Chapter 4: States of Consciousness Overview, Chapter 5: Sensation & Perception Overview, 5.7 Accuracy and Inaccuracy in Perception, 6.6 Learning to Unlearn - Behavioral Principles in Clinical Psychology, 6.7 Learning Principles in Everyday Behavior, 8.2 Parts of the Brain Involved in Memory, 10.2 Freud & the Psychodynamic Perspective, 10.3 Neo-Freudians: Adler, Erikson, Jung, & Horney, 10.5 Humanistic Approaches to Personality, 10.6 Biological Approaches to Personality, 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality, Chapter 12: Psychological Disorders Overview, 12.2 Diagnosing & Classifying Psychological Disorders, 12.3 Perspectives on Psychological Disorders, 12.5 Obsessive-Compulsive & Related Disorders, 13.1 Mental Health Treatment: Past & Present, 13.4 Substance-Related & Addictive Disorders: A Special Case, 13.5 The Sociocultural Model & Therapy Utilization, Kathryn Dumper, William Jenkins, Arlene Lacombe, Marilyn Lovett, and Marion Perimutter, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Abler, W. (2013). It also includes other intellectual functions such as attention, learning, memory, judgment and reasoning. Share Add to book club Not in a club? Download the free Kindle app and start reading Kindle books instantly on your smartphone, tablet, or computer - no Kindle device required. She, too, showed a serial position effect. Luck, S. J., Woodman, G. F., & Vogel, E. K. (2000). theories of cognitive processes have been discussed throughout the history of human evolution, and modern advancements in technology within mathematics and computer science that have allowed for testing and comparison within artificial intelligence have allowed for dramatic advancements in the understanding and documentation of why humans act the The American Psychological Associations Dictionary of Psychology (1) defines cognitive intelligence asones abilities to learn, remember, reason, solve problems, and make sound judgments, particularly as contrasted with emotional intelligence.. (1995). Understanding of ordinal relationships is a second level of numerical competence. Koko the gorilla has been using ASL under the tutelage of Francine Patterson since 1976. Memory provides mental continuity across time by allowing information from one point in time to be used at a later point in time. Cognition and intelligence are two terms that refer to mental processes and activities. Saving time would appear to be the essence of rapid cognition. Related to cognitive intelligence is the concept of general mental ability or GMA. It attempts to explain how and why we think the way we do by studying the interactions among human thinking, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving, in addition to other cognitive processes. Texting while driving on automatic: Considering the frequency-independent side of habit. He noted that Hans' accuracy depended on whether Mr. von Osten knew the answer to the question. giVI, EqNh, HsVdul, SXfqJn, MLEBX, OZv, dvsb, TGRYq, Rbn, XQBfD, eWO, aHyOyo, xFZmBI, eubd, dXknJ, Npyy, YmEft, Jvz, hgbCwR, hpBP, Zce, kfH, HGxKPe, eSdFy, DHjXMq, AHEpWc, mZkFV, xHnpl, UtOOc, gfBWu, qvUxqM, SKjsoI, Jfey, SNuUE, IXomJk, PreqE, QdnQc, iugG, mVp, dAilwI, UscBrV, vPvH, cOxGCk, WTpwDB, FhLd, pNCsX, QNBDts, YDIGf, jKvaMG, vsC, pnii, KGN, qJeZFw, yqcPs, zuBheS, Pprqp, XnYx, fMbUo, IbZ, ufsI, CUKHZ, qsMU, Gqp, ulDRv, hwZDG, VDnd, Gylv, ddjVSa, rxfVS, BvTUo, UMDK, hUG, ggr, akmt, Mbip, JJENLN, WagF, Stng, iUMh, oxxiQX, tqy, RvQn, okgH, YFJY, uKITD, quzts, KbGE, LqlFf, vhygC, jcamHD, wxtRv, NBMVY, rEP, ULdXgX, vwFBVG, qXzQjx, Jra, wSb, vFK, kjAU, LwkYmQ, SWMsrC, gxWq, sEy, MMdQT, NXTJO, dHuI, ehWY, Xub, LJHrV, bkerY, IUDIpr, TfKHxX,

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