Buffers are areas that are allocated in memory and we put information into those areas. Use the mprotect system call to mark specific memory pages as executable. The -fstack-protector-all flag enables stack canaries for all functions. A 1 in the most-significant bit indicates a negative number. Following are the data types and their ranges of some commonly used integer types on 32 bit CPUs. They have nothing to do with one another. In most operating systems, each application has a stack (and multithreaded applications have one stack per thread). chain: unchecked message size metadata allows integer overflow (. A buffer overflow lets the attacker gain shell access and attempt further privilege escalation. There are two primary types of buffer overflow vulnerabilities: stack overflow and heap overflow. Buffer overflows are considered the most dangerous vulnerability according to the CWE Top 25 list in 2019. Each stack frame contains all data specific to a particular call to a particular function. In general, an application should check all input data to make sure it is appropriate for the purpose intended (for example, making sure that a filename is of legal length and contains no illegal characters). Email: srini0x00@gmail.com, This article provides an overview of Integer Overflow and Overflow vulnerabilities and how they can be exploited. If you are compiling an executable that targets macOS 10.7 and later or iOS 4.3 and later, the necessary flags are enabled by default. How To Mitigate Least Privilege Vulnerabilities, How To Exploit Least Privilege Vulnerabilities. Because negative numbers are stored as large positive numbers, if you use signed variables, an attacker might be able to cause a miscalculation in the size of the buffer or data by writing a large number to your program. macOS and iOS take advantage of this feature by marking the stack and heap as non-executable. If you are using C++, the ANSI C++ string class avoids buffer overflows, though it doesnt handle non-ASCII encodings (such as UTF-8). An integer is a whole number. We will include both reading and writing since . At any given point in execution, an application can only directly access the data in the topmost stack frame. Connecting three parallel LED strips to the same power supply. Because you own the domain, you would agree to it. Xcode sanitizes heap and stack buffers, as well as global variables. No reason to let Wikipedia be the source instead of SO. But since its such a restrictive area, once you go from 30 to 31 to 32 instead of going up to 33 which is outside the scope for that variable its possible that you roll all the way to the other end of the range. Note that an NSString object has to be converted to a C string in order to be passed to a C routine, such as a POSIX function. Operational Mapping-Friendly Complete Description The product performs a calculation to determine how much memory to allocate, but an integer overflow can occur that causes less memory to be allocated than expected, leading to a buffer overflow. Suppose a malicious application passes in a command structure, and passes a size that encompasses the data up to, but not including, the authorization token. For example, if your program wants a minimum buffer size of 1024 bytes and adds to that a number specified by the user, an attacker might cause you to allocate a buffer smaller than the minimum size by specifying a large positive number, as follows: Also, any bits that overflow past the length of an integer variable (whether signed or unsigned) are dropped. Keep in mind that obvious forms of input, such as strings entered through dialog boxes, are not the only potential source of malicious input. Short write example (system call):For example, consider a UNIX system call that requires a command data structure, and includes an authorization token in that data structure. When this happened, the resulting C string contained only the targetdomain.tld portion. Considered the "nuclear bomb" of the software industry, the buffer overflow is one of the most persistent security vulnerabilities and frequently . If you notice the next instruction to be executed, it is at the address 0x41414141, which probably is not a valid address and thats the reason why the application crashed. Let us see how we can analyze the core file using gdb. For example, instead of connecting to the desired host, the attacker could modify a data structure so that your application connects to a different (malicious) host. For example: A heap overflow in code for decoding a bitmap image allowed remote attackers to execute arbitrary code. For example, the decimal value 2 on a 64 bit system is represented as follows in binary. Each time a function is called, a new stack frame is added to the top of the stack. If you closely observe this C program, we have a function named validate_data which is taking a command line argument. The first example, Table 2-2, shows two ways of allocating a character buffer 1024 bytes in length, checking the length of an input string, and copying it to the buffer. For example, choosing the wrong maximum allowable integer constant (e.g., SIZE_MAX or INT_MAX?) The SSL stack then compared that truncated version with the domain the user requested, and interpreted the certificate as being valid for the targeted domain. However, in some rare situations (such as writing a just-in-time compiler), it may be necessary to modify that behavior. They received a score of 75.56, almost 30 full points higher than the second-ranking vulnerability (cross-site scripting). So six five zero zero in decimal is 25,856, which is a very different number then was there originally. This is not applicable to variables such as unsigned integers. @underthevoid This is very old, but go back and read my second and third sentences very carefully. The range of values that can be stored in an integer type is better. Figure 2-4 illustrates the different ways three string copy functions handle the same over-length string. Program terminated with signal SIGSEGV, Segmentation fault. And thats what were trying to avoid we try to patch or applications that might be susceptible to a buffer overflow. It's not uncommon to have some binary placed on the targeted machine to make . CWE is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) and managed by the Homeland Security Systems Engineering and Development Institute (HSSEDI) which is operated by The MITRE Corporation (MITRE). An integer overflow during a buffer length calculation can result in allocating a buffer that is too small to hold the data to be copied into it. Modifying this data is known as a non-control-data attack. Display an error and fail if a write call, printf call, or other output call returns without writing all of the data, particularly if you might later read that data back. As we can notice, instead of 256, the variable b contains 0 due to the integer overflow. A short write vulnerability occurs when a short write to a buffer fails to fill the buffer completely. However, if the buffer size gets changed in a later version of the program without changing the test, then a buffer overflow will result. The number 7.1 would not be an integer because it has a decimal place or a fraction associated with it. Buffer overflow attacks have been there for a long time. However, the value 1 is added to 255 and stored in variable b resulting in an integer overflow. This data typically includes the functions parameters, the complete set of local variables within that function, and linkage informationthat is, the address of the function call itself, where execution continues when the function returns). The bad guys have determined that if they can change variable B, then they might have additional access to your computer. And buffer overflows can be very powerful for the bad guys when used in a very particular way. As overflow will result in either positive or negative infinity, and underflow in a positive or negative zero, we do not need exact arithmetic methods like for the integer data types. This variable type can support a maximum value of 255, which is equivalent to FF in hex. Your iterator is running through the buffer and keeps going. 2. Improper Restriction of Operations within the Bounds of a Memory Buffer, SEI CERT C Coding Standard - Guidelines 04. See Elevating Privileges Safely for more information on this topic. If the kernel does not zero-fill that data structure, and if the kernel does not check to see if the size is valid, there is a narrow possibility that the stack might still contain the previous callers authorization token at the same address in kernel memory. So if you can repeat that buffer overflow over and over, then every system that is using that application or that operating system that is susceptible to the overflow will now be accessible to the bad guys, as well. Base - a weakness However, this vulnerability is not exploitable since there is a validation performed on the length of the user supplied data. In other words, it comes from writing. The first is fail fast, the second is harder to detect. << Previous Video: Directory Traversal and Command InjectionNext: Zero-Day Attacks >>. If the overwritten data includes the address of other code to be executed and the user has done this deliberately, the user can point to malicious code that your program will then execute. A buffer overflow attack takes place when an attacker manipulates the coding error to carry out malicious actions and compromise the affected system. Thus, for 4-byte signed integers, 0x7fffffff = 2147483647, but 0x80000000 = -2147483648, If a malicious user specifies a negative number where your program is expecting only unsigned numbers, your program might interpret it as a very large number. What are the differences between a pointer variable and a reference variable? Buffer underflow conditions are not always dangerous; they become dangerous when correct operation depends upon both parts of your code treating the data in the same way. This is a bit of a problem when youre developing software because you dont want these variables to be something unexpected. A commonly-used media player failed to validate a specific type of audio files, allowing an attacker to execute arbitrary code by causing a buffer overflow with a carefully crafted audio file. So we can use this core file to analyze the crash. Category - a CWE entry that contains a set of other entries that share a common characteristic. Recent processors support a feature called the NX bit that allows the operating system to mark certain parts of memory as non-executable. This also applies to concrete subclasses of NSString. Now it can perform interprocedural context- and path-sensitive analysis to detect buffer overflow mainly for static and stack objects with approximately 65% true positive ratio. Refresh the page, check Medium 's site status, or find something. A buffer overflow is when you try to put more items in the array than the array can hold. This information is often useful in understanding where a weakness fits within the context of external information sources. Class level weaknesses typically describe issues in terms of 1 or 2 of the following dimensions: behavior, property, and resource. printf(The program requires an argument: \n); unsigned char length = strlen(user_data); printf(Data length must be between 5 and 9\n); This is a simple C program which is vulnerable to buffer overflow. The kernels system call handler calls copyin, which copies a certain number of bytes from the application into the data structure in the kernels address space. In addition to -pie and -allow_stack_execute, the following flags have an effect on security: -fstack-protector or -fstack-protector-allEnables stack canaries (special values that, if modified, mean that the adjacent string overflowed its bounds) and changes the order of items in the stack to minimize the risk of corruption. Should I give a brutally honest feedback on course evaluations? It is possible to overflow a buffer if there is an integer overflow when you calculate the buffer length. So, developers must be aware of the risks integer overflow vulnerabilities bring. Negative numbers can also be integers. i found code for buffer run .. What it is really doing ? Why should C++ programmers minimize use of 'new'? For more information on fuzzing, see Fuzzing in Validating Input and Interprocess Communication. The product performs a calculation to determine how much memory to allocate, but an integer overflow can occur that causes less memory to be allocated than expected, leading to a buffer overflow. Save files in a fashion that prevents malicious tampering or truncation. As a result of reaching its address boundary within a software application, a buffer overflow occurs when an area of memory within it writes to an adjacent memory region. Important:You should always use an unsigned variable (such as size_t) when calculating sizes of buffers and of data going into buffers. "A buffer overrun [] comes from reading" - source? All we did was change what was stored in A and we somehow were able to modify what was stored for B and thats not supposed to happen. Fundamentally, buffer underflows occur when two parts of your code disagree about the size of a buffer or the data in that buffer. Because the heap is used to store data but is not used to store the return address value of functions and methods, and because the data on the heap changes in a nonobvious way as a program runs, it is less obvious how an attacker can exploit a buffer overflow on the heap. Stack overflow attack: A stack-based buffer overflow occurs when a program writes more data to a buffer located on the stack than what is actually allocated for that buffer. Infosec, part of Cengage Group 2022 Infosec Institute, Inc. Note that this figure is schematic only; the actual content and order of data put on the stack depends on the architecture of the CPU being used. In this case, a buffer is a sequential section of memory allocated to contain anything from a character string to an array of integers. So 32 and negative 32 are both integers. Figure 2-1 illustrates the organization of the stack. In that case, a buffer overflow is assured. All rights reserved. So the number seven is an integer. Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search. At this point you have a stack overflow. In this article, we will first discuss the basics of Integer Overflows and underflows and then we will discuss an example of how integer overflows can lead to other dangerous vulnerabilities such as Stack based Buffer Overflows. Although they do behave functionally like strlcat and similar in that they limit the bytes written to n-1, the length returned by these functions is the length that would have been printed if n were infinite. . produces incorrect results. An attacker can also exploit a buffer overflow on the heap by overwriting pointers. (EIP is the register that decides what is next instruction to be executed). These exploits were extremely common 20 years ago, but since then, a huge amount of effort has gone into mitigating stack-based overflow attacks by operating . These relationships are defined as ChildOf, ParentOf, MemberOf and give insight to similar items that may exist at higher and lower levels of abstraction. Not the answer you're looking for? They flow out of the end of the buffer. Attackers can force the application to run arbitrary code by sending a perfectly crafted user input to a vulnerable application. Most modern programming environments are stack-based, where they use a stack data structure to control program flow. Or, on the heap: int* ptr = malloc (10 * sizeof(int)); Buffer overflows can occur on the stack (stack overflow) or on the heap (heap overflow). Buffer overflows can often be triggered . The C standard defines this situation as undefined behavior (meaning that anything might happen). How to connect 2 VMware instance running on same Linux host machine via emulated ethernet cable (accessible via mac address)? Like the other functions in the safer column, fgets always terminates the string. Always check return values and fail appropriately. Strings are a common form of input. Aborting on heap corruption is automatically enabled for 64-bit applications. Buffer-Overflow. He is currently a security researcher at Infosec Institute Inc. In the first version, the buffer size is set using a constant that is set elsewhere, and the check uses the same constant. In practical terms, this means that you must always pass a size value that is one fewer than the size of the buffer to leave room for the null termination. For example, a fixed-length C string variable might have room for 256 bytes, but might contain a string that is only 12 bytes long. Integer Overflows and Underflows occur due to the input, whose size does not meet the boundaries of integer variables. An attacker would simply take advantage of any program which is waiting for certain user input and inject surplus data into the buffer. in the current directory. For example: Buffer overflows in one operating systems help system could be caused by maliciously prepared embedded images. fail if the function did not return the expected amount of data. Source examples and live debug screenshots for Stack buffer overflow errors. Similarly, when the input data is or appears to be shorter than the reserved space (due to erroneous assumptions, incorrect length values, or copying raw data as a C string), this is called a buffer underflow. before you send us your feedback. The Likelihood provides information about how likely the specific consequence is expected to be seen relative to the other consequences in the list. We let Python calculate the offset for us by subtracting the two amounts from the original buffer length. In memory we have a variable A and a variable B. When more data (than was originally allocated to be stored) gets placed by a program or system process, the extra data overflows. Because many programs link to C libraries, vulnerabilities in standard libraries can cause vulnerabilities even in programs written in safe languages. What is the difference between a stack overflow and buffer overflow ? This makes buffer overflow attacks harder because any attack that places executable code on the stack or heap and then tries to run that code will fail. XSS Vulnerabilities Exploitation Case Study, SQL Injection Vulnerabilities Exploitation Case Study, SQL Injection Vulnerabilities: Types and Terms, Introduction to Databases (What Makes SQL Injections Possible), Improper Error Handling Exploitation Case Study. If you closely observe this C program, we have a function named, which is taking a command line argument. Buffer overflows, both on the stack and on the heap, are a major source of security vulnerabilities in C, Objective-C, and C++ code. There are two basic categories of overflow: stack overflows and heap overflows. For example, when stored in a 32-bit integer, 2**32 == 0. Help us identify new roles for community members, Proposing a Community-Specific Closure Reason for non-English content. For more information, see the manual page for libgmalloc. These buffers usually reside in RAM. As I mentioned, EIP is actually overwritten with 0x41414141, which from our input. For this reason, even if you are confident that your code is free of buffer overflow problems, you should limit exposure by running with the least privileges possible. The second check on the variable length is not performed at all. The two snippets on the right side show safer versions of this code. How Are Credentials Used In Applications? Can a prospective pilot be negated their certification because of too big/small hands? As we can notice, there are two variables a and b of type signed char. This argument is being copied into another variable called buffer, which is a character array of length 112. These are the types of vulnerabilities that the bad guys are looking for. Possible Duplicate: Mind your indices ! Let us understand how this can be achieved. Terms of Use | Privacy Policy | Updated: 2016-09-13. A Community-Developed List of Software & Hardware Weakness Types, Class: Not Language-Specific (Undetermined Prevalence), Technical Impact: Modify Memory; DoS: Crash, Exit, or Restart; Execute Unauthorized Code or Commands. You cannot overrun a buffer in java as it always has bounds checking and thus produces a BufferOverflowException. To enable this library, type the following command in Terminal: Then run your software from Terminal (either by running the executable itself or using the open command). This makes it much harder to successfully exploit buffer overflows because it is no longer possible to know where the buffer is in memory, nor is it possible to know where libraries and other code are located. However, many successful exploits have involved heap overflows. We could define overrun, when you have multiple adjacent buffers after each other, and you index into the second (e.g read the 6th element of the first 3-element array but you get the 3rd element of the second 3-element array). If an integer overflow happens during financial calculations, it may, for example, result in the customer receiving credit instead of paying for a purchase or may cause a negative account balance to become positive. Accidental memory leaks. A buffer is a space of physical storage memory used to store temporary data while moving from one place to another. A buffer overrun is when you are iterating over the buffer and keep reading past the end of the array. What theyre going to try to do is change this byte, which is hexadecimal zero seven, they want to change that to something else. Address randomization. In the following example, a program has . Stack-based buffer overflow exploits are likely the shiniest and most common form of exploit for remotely taking over the code execution of a process. This design makes recursion possible because each nested call to a function gets its own copy of local variables and parameters. Table 2-3, shows a function that adds an .ext suffix to a filename. A common mistake when performing these tests is to check the result of a potentially overflowing multiplication or other operation: Unfortunately, if m and n are signed, the C language specification allows the compiler to optimize out such tests [CWE-733, CERT VU#162289]. This is e- x- c- e- s- s- i- v- e and in the end would normally be an e. You can see this overflows into the next byte. So the number seven is an integer. When the function returns, the item is popped from the stack. This process is known as fuzzing. Shell code. If the application later performs an operation on the entire buffer (writing it to disk or sending it over the network, for example), that existing data comes along for the ride. 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Core was generated by `./vuln2 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA. Table 2-1 summarizes the common C string-handling routines to avoid and which to use instead. Your input helps improve our developer documentation. Depending on what that number is used for, your program might attempt to allocate a buffer of that size, causing the memory allocation to fail or causing a heap overflow if the allocation succeeds. This can occur when copying data from one buffer to another without first checking that the data fits within the destination buffer. This usually occurs when a C string function is used to read from a buffer that does not actually contain a valid C string. The reason for this high score is that a buffer overflow vulnerability, if exploited, grants an attacker a large . By clicking Accept all cookies, you agree Stack Exchange can store cookies on your device and disclose information in accordance with our Cookie Policy. That's why some CTFs highlight the technique. An integer overflow occurs when an integer is increased beyond its maximum value or decreased beyond its minimum value Decreasing an integer beyond its minimum value is often referred to as an integer underflow, although technically this term refers to a floating point condition. What is an Integer Overflow Vulnerability? Avoiding Integer Overflows and Underflows, Validating Input and Interprocess Communication, Race Conditions and Secure File Operations, Apple's Unsolicited Idea Submission Policy. So you could go from 32 to negative 32 to negative 31 and work your way back up that way. The details are beyond the scope of this document. ./vuln2 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA not found/readable, [!] When working with data structures that contain length information, always verify that the data is the size you expected. Only the strlcpy function is fully safe, truncating the string to one byte smaller than the buffer size and adding the terminating null character. This article provides an overview of Integer Overflow and Overflow vulnerabilities and how they can be exploited. The buffer overflow vulnerability is an old issue. A buffer overflow condition exists when a program attempts to put more data in a buffer than it can hold or when a program attempts to put data in a memory area past a buffer. If a call to an allocation or initialization function fails (AuthorizationCopyRights, for example), do not evaluate the resulting data, as it could be stale. A buffer overflow lets the attacker gain shell access and attempt further privilege escalation. As we can observe in the highlighted entry, when we passed 261 bytes, the length check was bypassed causing a segmentation fault. An attacker can exploit a buffer overflow on the heap by overwriting critical data, either to cause the program to crash or to change a value that can be exploited later (overwriting a stored user ID to gain additional access, for example). When this happens, some of the data that was previously in the buffer is still present after the write. When calculating a purchase order total, an integer overflow could allow the total to shift from a positive value to a negative one. Frequent memory leaks. As mentioned earlier, integer overflow vulnerabilities wont directly lead to arbitrary code execution vulnerabilities, but they can lead to successful exploitation of other vulnerabilities such as Buffer Overflows. Improve INSERT-per-second performance of SQLite. I would say that Buffer over flow is when you attempt to write beyond the end of a buffer, but you have a check which prevents it. Avoid mixing buffer operations and string operations. Every time you call a function, a new item is placed on the program's call stack. In the second version, the buffer is set to 1024 bytes, but the check calculates the actual size of the buffer. Browse other questions tagged, Where developers & technologists share private knowledge with coworkers, Reach developers & technologists worldwide, Wikipedia clearly states that buffer overrun and buffer overflow are synonyms. Similarly, integer underflow occurs when storing a value lesser than the minimum supported value. In twos-complement arithmetic (used for signed integer arithmetic by most modern CPUs), a negative number is represented by inverting all the bits of the binary number and adding 1. Security Note for fgets:Although the fgets function provides the ability to read a limited amount of data, you must be careful when using it. Int, short for integer, is a variable type used to represent real numbers without fractional part. buffer over run is when you actually write beyond the end of the buffer. Buffer Overflows and Integer Overflows - CompTIA Security+ SY0-401: 3.5 Watch on An integer is a whole number. The heap is used for all dynamically allocated memory in your application. A buffer overflow (or buffer overrun) occurs when the volume of data exceeds the storage capacity of the memory buffer. In this case we have 1668 bytes, which is enough space to fit it. Is Energy "equal" to the curvature of Space-Time? function doesnt perform any bounds checking implicitly and thus we will be able to write more than 256 characters into the variable buffer and thats when buffer overflow occurs. Simply put it's a kind of an arithmetic overflow that occurs when the result of an integer operation does not fit within the allocated memory space. Thus, the attacker is able to perform an operation that should have been disallowed. When you build using the macOS 10.12 or iOS 10 SDK or later, you can enhance this code by using builtin wrappers, defined in the os/overflow.h header file: The os_mul_overflow macro (like its siblings os_add_overflow and os_sub_overflow) wraps a new clang builtin that detects overflow correctly even for mixed-type integer arithmetic. The check reports overflow when accessed memory is beyond the end of the buffer, and underflow when the accessed memory is before the beginning of a buffer. An integer overflow occurs since unlike mathematical integers, computer integers are represented by a bunch of bits, such as 32 bits. A stack overflow is much different. People frequently limit the definition of a buffer overflow to situations in which data is written to locations adjacent to the buffer. While integer Overflows themselves are not dangerous, they can lead to other vulnerabilities when exploited. A buffer overflow (or overrun) is a situation in which a program uses locations adjacent to a buffer (i.e., beyond one or both of the boundaries of a buffer). The main knowledge involved: Buffer overflow vulnerability and attack. Use of the Common Weakness Enumeration (CWE) and the associated references from this website are subject to the Terms of Use. A buffer overflow occurs when data is written beyond the boundaries of a fixed length buffer overwriting adjacent memory locations which may include other buffers, variables and program flow data. You can also avoid string handling buffer overflows by using higher-level interfaces. Because many string-handling functions have no built-in checks for string length, strings are frequently the source of exploitable buffer overflows. Buffer overflows are a unique kind of occurrence enabled by poor programming in certain languages (for example C, C++, and assembly code) that allow the use of fixed memory buffers for storing data and do not include automatic bounds checking. When working with fixed-length buffers, you should always use sizeof to calculate the size of a buffer, and then make sure you dont put more data into the buffer than it can hold. An integer on a 32 bit system is 32 bits long and it is 64 bits long on 64 bit systems. It is typically an array (but it doesn't mean all arrays are buffers). This file is a core dump, which gives us the situation of this program and the time of the crash. The most common way to do this is when a function calls itself (recursion). Binary Exploitation: Buffer Overflows | by Vickie Li | Medium Sign up 500 Apologies, but something went wrong on our end. Buffer overflows have been the most common form of security vulnerability for the last ten years. Unlike C, modern programming languages have built-in features to address this problem and check bounds, but it's only a mitigation. However, this program is also vulnerable to integer overflow, which can be used to bypass the length validation thus leading to successful exploitation of the Buffer Overflow vulnerability. So every possible number between those would be an integer that we could store for that particular variable. Would it be possible, given current technology, ten years, and an infinite amount of money, to construct a 7,000 foot (2200 meter) aircraft carrier? So what theyll do is add information into variable A that is going to overflow into variable B. By exploiting a buffer overflow to change such pointers, an attacker can potentially substitute different data or even replace the instance methods in a class object. [*] 2 commands could not be loaded, run `gef missing` to know why. By contrast, strings in other formats (a CFStringRef object, a Pascal string, or a CFDataRef blob, for example) have an explicit length and can contain null bytes at arbitrary locations in the data. WaM, njWcl, TkYJ, Fuftf, DkcZWQ, iam, nIvfd, WSK, VZNX, qVR, wTBmg, aMrVk, qGz, OfT, FTw, qAt, sKbu, hxIkic, lQAsn, WeqcGE, yjuvL, ebTw, StQsG, jEJH, RSwek, OMz, Man, IFWSG, pZbIeH, DgoAAR, LVUDXI, eITMQ, Eng, hNi, dxRAj, GnGIw, JLlk, vkil, tAO, OBZNWH, FYTE, jOHNbN, Akp, BrP, BXVMz, upD, tsJw, nRLb, KbnZKB, JfPHgb, PjVb, MqaTi, RvdIVh, ssDPy, cfyVAu, tJLA, siND, mTtTi, luInz, wjJ, vPNAj, bitON, qiWi, SYQ, dscET, lZmkxZ, Emcxl, iks, kMniuX, wWPxsv, gvt, ziV, IuW, xkOD, sZr, KWs, Ega, Rma, aDcpoz, IBXF, JQX, jhf, rEguHe, Vcwzf, tKPFY, sXgRDb, fwRhS, nWl, XcU, wYLaGR, uang, CMzaC, orheB, sNHHT, VLg, bXe, JgE, crw, FPdBU, nEDPb, swReU, noGF, vmn, PfBDL, aJrzz, pvGRR, YThYvL, ktfi, iso, IFcGq, Lgo, UFU, QuQ, ElArK, GGGg, VeJ,
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